ABSTRACT
Eating disorders are prevalent in adulthood and have high rates of morbidity and mortality. In many cases, primary care physicians (PCPs) are the first and/or only medical professionals to interact with individuals with eating disorders. However, PCPs often do not receive adequate training to confidently and appropriately care for these patients. This review includes up-to-date screening and treatment guidelines and relevant studies concerning the care of adult patients with eating disorders and provides concise guidance for PCPs regarding the outpatient management of these patients in primary care. Three case reports are also included to provide real-life examples of patients with eating disorders that PCPs may encounter. Although eating disorders can have grave consequences, recovery is possible and common, even after patients have been ill for many years. PCPs can play an integral role in promoting recovery by following evidence-based guidelines, by identifying when medical or psychiatric hospitalization is indicated, by monitoring for medical complications, and by referring early to evidenced-based therapies.
Continue Reading...
Did you know members enjoy unlimited free PDF downloads as part of their subscription? Subscribe today for instant access to this article and our entire library in your preferred format. Alternatively, you can purchase the PDF of this article individually.
References (91)
- Arcelus J, Mitchell AJ, Wales J, et al. Mortality rates in patients with anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders. a meta-analysis of 36 studies. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011;68(7):724–731. PubMed CrossRef
- Rikani AA, Choudhry Z, Choudhry AM, et al. A critique of the literature on etiology of eating disorders. Ann Neurosci. 2013;20(4):157–161. PubMed CrossRef
- Franko DL, Keshaviah A, Eddy KT, et al. A longitudinal investigation of mortality in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170(8):917–925. PubMed CrossRef
- Keshaviah A, Edkins K, Hastings ER, et al. Re-examining premature mortality in anorexia nervosa: a meta-analysis redux. Compr Psychiatry. 2014;55(8):1773–1784. PubMed CrossRef
- Murray SB, Pila E, Griffiths S, et al. When illness severity and research dollars do not align: are we overlooking eating disorders? World Psychiatry. 2017;16(3):321. PubMed CrossRef
- Rodgers RF, Lombardo C, Cerolini S, et al. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on eating disorder risk and symptoms. Int J Eat Disord. 2020;53(7):1166–1170. PubMed CrossRef
- Hudson JI, Hiripi E, Pope HG Jr, et al. The prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;61(3):348–358. PubMed CrossRef
- Mond JM, Hay PJ, Rodgers B, et al. Health service utilization for eating disorders: findings from a community-based study. Int J Eat Disord. 2007;40(5):399–408. PubMed CrossRef
- Micali N, Martini MG, Thomas JJ, et al. Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of eating disorders amongst women in mid-life: a population-based study of diagnoses and risk factors. BMC Med. 2017;15(1):12. PubMed CrossRef
- Mahr F, Farahmand P, Bixler EO, et al. A national survey of eating disorder training. Int J Eat Disord. 2015;48(4):443–445. PubMed CrossRef
- Robinson AL, Boachie A, Lafrance GA. “I want help!”: psychologists’ and physicians’ competence, barriers, and needs in the management of eating disorders in children and adolescents in Canada. Can Psychol. 2013;54(3):160–165. CrossRef
- Boulé CJ, McSherry JA. Patients with eating disordersa: how well are family physicians managing them? Can Fam Physician. 2002;48(NOV):1807–1813. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12489246/. Accessed September 4, 2020. PubMed
- Gooding HC, Cheever E, Forman SF, et al. Implementation and evaluation of two educational strategies to improve screening for eating disorders in pediatric primary care. J Adolesc Health. 2017;60(5):606–611. PubMed CrossRef
- Johnson JG, Spitzer RL, Williams JBW. Health problems, impairment and illnesses associated with bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder among primary care and obstetric gynaecology patients. Psychol Med. 2001;31(8):1455–1466. PubMed CrossRef
- Buchholz LJ, King PR, Wray LO. Identification and management of eating disorders in integrated primary care: recommendations for psychologists in integrated care settings. J Clin Psychol Med Settings. 2017;24(2):163–177. PubMed CrossRef
- Gagne DA, Von Holle A, Brownley KA, et al. Eating disorder symptoms and weight and shape concerns in a large web-based convenience sample of women ages 50 and above: results of the Gender and Body Image (GABI) study. Int J Eat Disord. 2012;45(7):832–844. PubMed CrossRef
- Culbert KM, Racine SE, Klump KL. Research review: what we have learned about the causes of eating disorders - a synthesis of sociocultural, psychological, and biological research. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2015;56(11):1141–1164. PubMed CrossRef
- Frank GKW. Neuroimaging and eating disorders. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2019;32(6):478–483. PubMed CrossRef
- Hilbert A, Pike KM, Goldschmidt AB, et al. Risk factors across the eating disorders. Psychiatry Res. 2014;220(1-2):500–506. PubMed CrossRef
- Striegel-Moore RH, Dohm FA, Kraemer HC, et al. Eating disorders in white and black women. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160(7):1326–1331. PubMed CrossRef
- Gordon KH, Castro Y, Sitnikov L, et al. Cultural body shape ideals and eating disorder symptoms among White, Latina, and Black college women. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2010;16(2):135–143. PubMed CrossRef
- Austin SB, Nelson LA, Birkett MA, et al. Eating disorder symptoms and obesity at the intersections of gender, ethnicity, and sexual orientation in US high school students. Am J Public Health. 2013;103(2):e16–e22. PubMed CrossRef
- Calzo JP, Blashill AJ, Brown TA, et al. Eating disorders and disordered weight and shape control behaviors in sexual minority populations. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2017;19(8):49. PubMed CrossRef
- Fournier M, Bryn Austin S, Samples C, et al. A comparison of weight-related who are homeless and non-homeless. J Sch Health. 2009;79(10):466–473. PubMed CrossRef
- Becker CB, Middlemass K, Taylor B, et al. Food insecurity and eating disorder pathology. Int J Eat Disord. 2017;50(9):1031–1040. PubMed CrossRef
- Distel LML, Egbert AH, Bohnert AM, et al. Chronic stress and food insecurity. Fam Community Health. 2019;42(3):213–220. PubMed CrossRef
- Livingston WS, Brignone E, Fargo JD, et al. VHA-enrolled homeless veterans are at increased risk for eating disorder diagnoses. Mil Med. 2019;184(1-2):e71–e75. PubMed CrossRef
- Räisänen U, Hunt K. The role of gendered constructions of eating disorders in delayed help-seeking in men: a qualitative interview study. BMJ Open. 2014;4(4):e004342. PubMed CrossRef
- Sangha S, Oliffe JL, Kelly MT, et al. Eating disorders in males: how primary care providers can improve recognition, diagnosis, and treatment. Am J Men Health. 2019;13(3):1557988319857424. PubMed CrossRef
- Franko DL, Tabri N, Keshaviah A, et al. Predictors of long-term recovery in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: data from a 22-year longitudinal study. J Psychiatr Res. 2018;96:183–188. PubMed CrossRef
- Schmidt U, Brown A, McClelland J, et al. Will a comprehensive, person-centered, team-based early intervention approach to first episode illness improve outcomes in eating disorders? Int J Eat Disord. 2016;49(4):374–377. PubMed CrossRef
- Ambwani S, Cardi V, Albano G, et al. A multicenter audit of outpatient care for adult anorexia nervosa: symptom trajectory, service use, and evidence in support of “early stage” versus “severe and enduring” classification. Int J Eat Disord. 2020;53(8):1337–1348. PubMed CrossRef
- Eddy KT, Tabri N, Thomas JJ, et al. Recovery from anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa at 22-year follow-up. J Clin Psychiatry. 2017;78(2):184–189. PubMed CrossRef
- Screening for Eating Disorders in Adolescents and Adults. United States Preventive Services Taskforce website. Accessed March 25, 2021. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/document/final-research-plan/screening-eating-disorders-adolescents-adults
- Academy for Eating Disorders. Eating Disorders: A Guide to Medical Care, Fourth Edition. 2021. Accessed November 29, 2021. https://higherlogicdownload.s3.amazonaws.com/AEDWEB/27a3b69a-8aae-45b2-a04c-2a078d02145d/UploadedImages/Publications_Slider/2120_AED_Medical_Care_4th_Ed_FINAL.pdf
- Morgan JF, Reid F, Lacey JH. The SCOFF Questionnaire: assessment of a new screening tool for eating disorders. BMJ. 1999;319(7223):1467–1468. PubMed CrossRef
- Garner DM, Olmsted MP, Bohr Y, et al. The Eating Attitudes Test: psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychol Med. 1982;12(4):871–878. PubMed CrossRef
- Zickgraf HF, Ellis JM. Initial validation of the Nine Item Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder Screen (NIAS): a measure of three restrictive eating patterns. Appetite. 2018;123:32–42. PubMed CrossRef
- American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). 5th Edition. 2013.
- Babor TF, Higgins-Biddle JC, Saunders JB, et al. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, Guidelines for Use in Primary Care. Second Edition. WHO/MSD/MSB/01.6a. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, Department of Mental Health and Substance Dependence. 2011.
- Skinner HA. The Drug Abuse Screening Test. Addict Behav. 1982;7(4):363–371. PubMed CrossRef
- Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med. 2001;16(9):606–613. PubMed CrossRef
- Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JB, et al. A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(10):1092–1097. PubMed CrossRef
- Posner K, Brown GK, Stanley B, et al. The Columbia-Suicide Severity Rating Scale: initial validity and internal consistency findings from three multisite studies with adolescents and adults. Am J Psychiatry. 2011;168(12):1266–1277. PubMed CrossRef
- Armour C, Műllerová J, Fletcher S, et al. Assessing childhood maltreatment and mental health correlates of disordered eating profiles in a nationally representative sample of English females. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2016;51(3):383–393. PubMed CrossRef
- Trottier K, MacDonald DE. Update on psychological trauma, other severe adverse experiences and eating disorders: state of the research and future research directions. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2017;19(8):45. PubMed CrossRef
- Harrop EN, Marlatt GA. The comorbidity of substance use disorders and eating disorders in women: prevalence, etiology, and treatment. Addict Behav. 2010;35(5):392–398. PubMed CrossRef
- Munn-Chernoff MA, Thornton LM, Walters RK, et al. Shared genetic risk between eating disorder- and substance- use-related phenotypes: evidence from genome-wide association studies. Addict Biol. 2019;2020:1–20. PubMed CrossRef
- Bahji A, Mazhar MN, Hudson CC, et al. Prevalence of substance use disorder comorbidity among individuals with eating disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Res. 2019;273:58–66. PubMed CrossRef
- Pisetsky EM, Thornton LM, Lichtenstein P, et al. Suicide attempts in women with eating disorders. J Abnorm Psychol. 2013;122(4):1042–1056. PubMed CrossRef
- Lipson SK, Sonneville KR. Understanding suicide risk and eating disorders in college student populations: results from a National Study. Int J Eat Disord. 2020;53(2):229–238. PubMed CrossRef
- Wang SB, Mancuso CJ, Jo J, et al. Restrictive eating, but not binge eating or purging, predicts suicidal ideation in adolescents and young adults with low-weight eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord. 2020;53(3):472–477. PubMed CrossRef
- Preti A, Rocchi MB, Sisti D, et al. A comprehensive meta-analysis of the risk of suicide in eating disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2011;124(1):6–17. PubMed CrossRef
- Mulvaney-Day N, Marshall T, Downey Piscopo K, et al. Screening for behavioral health conditions in primary care settings: a systematic review of the literature. J Gen Intern Med. 2018;33(3):335–346. PubMed CrossRef
- Waller G, Mountford VA. Weighing patients within cognitive-behavioural therapy for eating disorders: how, when and why. Behav Res Ther. 2015;70:1–10. PubMed CrossRef
- Thomas JJ, Eddy KT. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder: Children, Adolescents, & Adults. Cambridge University Press; 2019.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. Clinical Growth Charts. Accessed November 12, 2021. https://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/clinical_charts.htm
- Thomas JJ, Roberto CA, Brownell KD. Eighty-five per cent of what? discrepancies in the weight cut-off for anorexia nervosa substantially affect the prevalence of underweight. Psychol Med. 2009;39(5):833–843. PubMed CrossRef
- Golden NH, Katzman DK, Sawyer SM, et al; Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine. Position paper of the Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine: medical management of restrictive eating disorders in adolescents and young adults. J Adolesc Health. 2015;56(1):121–125. PubMed CrossRef
- Whitelaw M, Lee KJ, Gilbertson H, et al. Predictors of complications in anorexia nervosa and atypical anorexia nervosa: degree of underweight or extent and recency of weight loss? J Adolesc Health. 2018;63(6):717–723. PubMed CrossRef
- O’Connor G, Goldin J. The refeeding syndrome and glucose load. Int J Eat Disord. 2011;44(2):182–185. PubMed
- Fisher M, Simpser E, Schneider M. Hypophosphatemia secondary to oral refeeding in anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord. 2000;28(2):181–187. PubMed CrossRef
- Lemly DC, Birnbaum S. Eating Disorders: Primary Care Office Insite (internal guidelines). The General Hospital Corporation.
- Chen EY, Weissman JA, Zeffiro TA, et al. Family-based therapy for young adults with anorexia nervosa restores weight. Int J Eat Disord. 2016;49(7):701–707. PubMed CrossRef
- Forsberg S, Lock J. Family-based Treatment of Child and Adolescent Eating Disorders. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin; 2015:617–629.
- Lock J. Family therapy for eating disorders in youth: current confusions, advances, and new directions. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2018;31(6):431–435. PubMed CrossRef
- Linardon J, Wade TD, de la Piedad Garcia X, et al. The efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy for eating disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2017;85(11):1080–1094. PubMed CrossRef
- Fairburn CG, Bailey-Straebler S, Basden S, et al. A transdiagnostic comparison of enhanced cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT-E) and interpersonal psychotherapy in the treatment of eating disorders. Behav Res Ther. 2015;70:64–71. PubMed CrossRef
- Thomas JJ, Wons OB, Eddy KT. Cognitive-behavioral treatment of avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2018;31(6):425–430. PubMed CrossRef
- Raykos BC, Erceg-Hurn DM, McEvoy PM, et al. Severe and enduring anorexia nervosa? illness severity and duration are unrelated to outcomes from cognitive behaviour therapy. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2018;86(8):702–709. PubMed CrossRef
- Lock J, Nicholls D. Toward a greater understanding of the ways family-based treatment addresses the full range of psychopathology of adolescent anorexia nervosa. Front Psychiatry. 2020;10:968. PubMed CrossRef
- Marvanova M, Gramith K. Role of antidepressants in the treatment of adults with anorexia nervosa. Ment Health Clin. 2018;8(3):127–137. PubMed CrossRef
- Davis H, Attia E. Pharmacotherapy of eating disorders. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2017;30(6):452–457. PubMed CrossRef
- McElroy SL, Guerdjikova AI, Mori N, et al. Psychopharmacologic treatment of eating disorders: emerging findings. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2015;17(5):35. PubMed CrossRef
- McElroy SL. Pharmacologic treatments for binge-eating disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2017;78(suppl 1):14–19. PubMed CrossRef
- Brownley KA, Berkman ND, Peat CM, et al. Binge-eating disorder in adults. Ann Intern Med. 2016;165(6):409–420. PubMed CrossRef
- Murray HB, Kuo B, Eddy KT, et al. Disorders of gut-brain interaction common among outpatients with eating disorders including avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder. Int J Eat Disord. 2021;54(6):952–958. PubMed CrossRef
- Mehler PS, Andersen AE. Eating Disorders: A Guide to Medical Care and Complications. 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2010.
- Dejong H, Perkins S, Grover M, et al. The prevalence of irritable bowel syndrome in outpatients with bulimia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord. 2011;44(7):661–664. PubMed CrossRef
- Drabkin A, Rothman MS, Wassenaar E, et al. Assessment and clinical management of bone disease in adults with eating disorders: a review. J Eat Disord. 2017;5:42. PubMed CrossRef
- Misra M, Golden NH, Katzman DK. State of the art systematic review of bone disease in anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord. 2016;49(3):276–292. PubMed CrossRef
- Gomez-Bruton A, Montero-Marín J, González-Agüero A, et al. Swimming and peak bone mineral density: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Sports Sci. 2018;36(4):365–377. PubMed
- Waugh EJ, Woodside DB, Beaton DE, et al. Effects of exercise on bone mass in young women with anorexia nervosa. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43(5):755–763. PubMed CrossRef
- Plessow F, Singhal V, Toth AT, et al. Estrogen administration improves the trajectory of eating disorder pathology in oligo-amenorrheic athletes: A randomized controlled trial. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2019;102:273–280. PubMed
- Misra M, Katzman D, Miller KK, et al. Physiologic estrogen replacement increases bone density in adolescent girls with anorexia nervosa. J Bone Miner Res. 2011;26(10):2430–2438. PubMed CrossRef
- Miller KK, Meenaghan E, Lawson EA, et al. Effects of risedronate and low-dose transdermal testosterone on bone mineral density in women with anorexia nervosa: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(7):2081–2088. PubMed CrossRef
- Micali N, dos-Santos-Silva I, De Stavola B, et al. Fertility treatment, twin births, and unplanned pregnancies in women with eating disorders: findings from a population-based birth cohort. BJOG. 2014;121(4):408–416. PubMed CrossRef
- Koubaa S, Hällström T, Lindholm C, et al. Pregnancy and neonatal outcomes in women with eating disorders. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;105(2):255–260. PubMed CrossRef
- Center for Disease Control. Combined Hormonal Contraceptives - US SPR - Reproductive Health. CDC website. https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/contraception/mmwr/spr/combined.html. Accessed March 25, 2021.
- FSRH CEU Statement: Contraception for women with eating disorders (May 2021). The Faculty of Sexual & Reproductive Healthcare of the Royal College of Obstetricians & Gynaecologists. Accessed November 29, 2021. https://www.fsrh.org/documents/fsrh-ceu-statement-contraception-for-women-with-eating/
- Westmoreland P, Mehler PS. Caring for patients with Severe and Enduring Eating Disorders (SEED): certification, harm reduction, palliative care, and the question of futility. J Psychiatr Pract. 2016;22(4):313–320. PubMed CrossRef
Members enjoy free PDF downloads on all articles.
Save
Cite
Already a member? Login
Advertisement
GAM ID: sidebar-top